Omega 3 Fatty Acids' Effects on COVID-19

Recently, the novel coronavirus, which is called severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2, has been responsible for the highly rapid spread of COVID-19 disease, globally. Until now, 535 million people were affected and 6.3 million people died due to this outbreak throughout the World. Although the lethality of this disease is lower than the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus and Middle East respiratory syndrome, severe complications of this disease are attributed to "cytokine storm” that is the reason for the severe lung damage. The cytokine storm causes systemic inflammation, acute respiratory distress syndrome, septic shock, stroke, multiple organ dysfunction, and death. As a result of these symptoms, there are pivotal studies about vaccination, drug, and medication to prevent severe complications and treat patients with COVID-19. Besides these studies, some research shows that nutrients are able to manage the cytokine storm such as many types of vitamins, trace elements, and omega 3 fatty acids. Omega 3 polyunsaturated fatty acids have specific roles in the inflammatory process. Omega 3 fatty acids have a role in the improvement of the inflammatory balance. They interact with viral infection in disparate stages such as viral entry and replication. This study highlights the roles of omega 3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in the prevention and treatment of the COVID-19. In addition, omega 3 fatty acids show anti-viral and anti-inflammatory effects on the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 and increase survival rates in patients infected with COVID-19.

Knowledge and dietary habits about omega 3 and 6 in university students from Ecuador and Peru, during COVID-19

Introduction: Confinement has adverse psycho-social as well as dietary repercussions. During the pandemic there was a higher consumption of processed and canned foods, in-creasing the consumption of omega 6 (co-6) and probably de-creasing the consumption of omega 3 (co-3).Objective: To determine the relationship between knowl-edge and dietary habits about omega 3 and 6 in university students from Ecuador and Peru during COVID-19.Methods: Descriptive, cross-sectional study, carried out in 134 Ecuadorian and 215 Peruvian students. Data were obtained from a virtual questionnaire with questions on knowledge and dietary habits about ca-3 and ca-6. Spearman's Rho, Mann Whitney U and Kruskall Wallis statistical tests were performed.Results: A correlation coefficient of knowledge and eating habits on ca-3 and ca-6, Rho=0.146 (p=0.092) and Rho=0.081 (p=0.235) was obtained for the samples from Ecuador and Peru, respectively. In Ecuadorian students, there were differences in the levels of knowledge about ca-3 and ca -6, both in males and females (p=0.007). In both countries there are different levels of knowledge in the different spe-cialties of the study (p=0.004).Conclusion: There is no correlation between knowledge and eating habits about ca-3 and ca-6 in university students of Health Sciences in both countries. Students from Ecuador present insufficient knowledge and inadequate dietary habits about ca-3 and ca-6, more than Peru.

Potential Psychoactive Effects of Microalgal Bioactive Compounds for the Case of Sleep and Mood Regulation: Opportunities and Challenges.

Sleep deficiency is now considered an emerging global epidemic associated with many serious health problems, and a major cause of financial and social burdens. Sleep and mental health are closely connected, further exacerbating the negative impact of sleep deficiency on overall health and well-being. A major drawback of conventional treatments is the wide range of undesirable side-effects typically associated with benzodiazepines and antidepressants, which can be more debilitating than the initial disorder. It is therefore valuable to explore the efficiency of other remedies for complementarity and synergism with existing conventional treatments, leading to possible reduction in undesirable side-effects. This review explores the relevance of microalgae bioactives as a sustainable source of valuable phytochemicals that can contribute positively to mood and sleep disorders. Microalgae species producing these compounds are also catalogued, thus creating a useful reference of the state of the art for further exploration of this proposed approach. While we highlight possibilities awaiting investigation, we also identify the associated issues, including minimum dose for therapeutic effect, bioavailability, possible interactions with conventional treatments and the ability to cross the blood brain barrier. We conclude that physical and biological functionalization of microalgae bioactives can have potential in overcoming some of these challenges.

Enriched Marine Oil Supplement Increases Specific Plasma Specialized Pro-Resolving Mediators in Adults with Obesity.

BACKGROUND: Specialized pro-resolving mediators (SPMs), synthesized from PUFAs, resolve inflammation and return damaged tissue to homeostasis. Thus, increasing metabolites of the SPM biosynthetic pathway may have potential health benefits for select clinical populations, such as subjects with obesity who display dysregulation of SPM metabolism. However, the concentrations of SPMs and their metabolic intermediates in humans with obesity remains unclear. OBJECTIVES: The primary objective of this study was to determine if a marine oil supplement increased specific metabolites of the SPM biosynthetic pathway in adults with obesity. The second objective was to determine if the supplement changed the relative abundance of key immune cell populations. Finally, given the critical role of antibodies in inflammation, we determined if ex vivo CD19 + B-cell antibody production was modified by marine oil intervention. METHODS: Twenty-three subjects [median age: 56 y; BMI (in kg/m2): 33.1] consumed 2 g/d of a marine oil supplement for 28-30 d. The supplement was particularly enriched with 18-hydroxyeicosapentaenoic (HEPE), 14-hydroxydocosahexaenoic acid (14-HDHA), and 17-HDHA. Blood was collected pre- and postsupplementation for plasma mass spectrometry oxylipin and fatty acid analyses, flow cytometry, and B-cell isolation. Paired t-tests and Wilcoxon tests were used for statistical analyses. RESULTS: Relative to preintervention, the supplement increased 6 different HEPEs and HDHAs accompanied by changes in plasma PUFAs. Resolvin E1 and docosapentaenoic acid-derived maresin 1 concentrations were increased 3.5- and 4.7-fold upon intervention, respectively. The supplement did not increase the concentration of D-series resolvins and had no effect on the abundance of immune cells. Ex vivo B-cell IgG but not IgM concentrations were lowered postsupplementation. CONCLUSIONS: A marine oil supplement increased select SPMs and their metabolic intermediates in adults with obesity. Additional studies are needed to determine if increased concentrations of specific SPMs control the resolution of inflammation in humans with obesity. This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT04701138.

Protective and therapeutic potentials of HDL and ApoA1 in COVID-19 elderly and chronic illness patients.

Background: Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is responsible for coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19). Elderly subjects, obese, and patients with chronic illnesses, are the most affected group. HDL has pleiotropic physiological functions that are affected with alteration(s) in its structure. Main text: Inflammation whether septic, immune, or other affects HDL structure and function. COVID-19 is associated with systemic immune-inflammation due to cytokine surge. Viral interaction with erythrocytes and hemoglobin-related compounds (may cause anemia and hypoxia) and other factors may affect HDL function. Trials have been conducted to resume HDL functions using peptide preparation, nutritional, and herbal elements. Conclusions: In this review article, I'll discuss the use of reconstituted HDL (rHDL), Apo-A1 mimetic peptide D-4F, ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, and the powdered roots and/or extract of Saussurea lappa (costus) to avoid comorbidity and mortality of COVID-19 in patients with chronic illness or elderly-age mortality.

Production of meat products based on organic rabbit breeding resources with the inclusion of protein-carbohydrate composites of plant origin

The World Health Organization recommends limiting the consumption of processed and red meat products due to the increased risk of developing cancer of the gastrointestinal tract of people and a decrease in immunity with a new coronavirus infection. An alternative to red meat is rabbit meat, rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids, which prevent carcinogenesis, causing apoptosis, control the cell cycle and the production of eicosanoids. For the production of meat products, dietary supplements are traditionally used to improve the consistency and increase the yield of finished products, which in some cases do not meet safety requirements. In this context, the use of rationally selected biopolymer plant complexes in combination with a protein component of animal origin is promising and can be safely used in the production cycle of products of various compositions. To obtain meat products based on rabbit meat using biotechnological approaches, protein-carbohydrate complexes containing sprouted forms of legumes, jerusalem artichoke dietary fibers and composites of animal and vegetable origin have been developed. Protein-carbohydrate complexes contained 17.2 – 23.7% protein, 2.20 – 4.70% fat and 18.2 – 21.8% dietary fiber in their composition. And conducting a biological assessment on a test culture indicates that the developed protein-carbohydrate complexes are physiological for biotest, that is, they have the necessary level of safety, which allows them to be recommended for enriching meat-based food systems and expanding the range of products produced by meat processing enterprises.

Nutrition, Epigenetics, and Major Depressive Disorder: Understanding the Connection.

Major depressive disorder (MDD) is a complex, multifactorial disorder of rising prevalence and incidence worldwide. Nearly, 280 million of people suffer from this leading cause of disability in the world. Moreover, patients with this condition are frequently co-affected by essential nutrient deficiency. The typical scene with stress and hustle in developed countries tends to be accompanied by eating disorders implying overnutrition from high-carbohydrates and high-fat diets with low micronutrients intake. In fact, currently, coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has drawn more attention to this underdiagnosed condition, besides the importance of the nutritional status in shaping immunomodulation, in which minerals, vitamins, or omega 3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (ω-3 PUFA) play an important role. The awareness of nutritional assessment is greater and greater in the patients with depression since antidepressant treatments have such a significant probability of failing. As diet is considered a crucial environmental factor, underlying epigenetic mechanisms that experience an adaptation or consequence on their signaling and expression mechanisms are reviewed. In this study, we included metabolic changes derived from an impairment in cellular processes due to lacking some essential nutrients in diet and therefore in the organism. Finally, aspects related to nutritional interventions and recommendations are also addressed.

The study on plant-origin functional ingredients and their effect on the cardiovascular system in the conditions of the novel coronavirus infection

The article provides functional properties' overview of vegetable raw materials – flax seeds. The studies' data on the determination of organoleptic parameters, the content and ratio of polyunsaturated fatty acids in samples enriched with flax seeds, linseed oil compared to the control sample are presented. Introduction of functional ingredients increased the nutritional value of convenience food. The positive effect of oil flax seeds on the organoleptic characteristics of the developed chopped convenience food was noted. Increasing the proportion of Omega-3 in convenience food and improving the ratio of Omega-3:Omega-6 in the developed convenience food has a positive effect on the protective functions of the body and the activity of the cardiovascular system during the pandemic of coronavirus infection (SARS-CoV-2).

The effect of Vitamin C and Zn supplementation on the immune system and clinical outcomes in COVID-19 patients.

SARS-CoV-2 (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome-Coronavirus-2) is the most dangerous form of the coronavirus, which causes COVID-19. In patients with severe COVID-19, the immune system becomes markedly overactive. There is evidence that supplementation with select micronutrients may play a role in maintaining immune system function in this patient population. Throughout the COVID-19 pandemic, significant emphasis has been placed on the importance of supplementing critical micronutrients such as Vitamin C and Zinc (Zn) due to their immunomodulatory effects. Viral infections, like COVID-19, increase physiological demand for these micronutrients. Therefore, the purpose of this review was to provide comprehensive information regarding the potential effectiveness of Vitamin C and Zn supplementation during viral infection and specifically COVID-19. This review demonstrated a relation between Vitamin C and Zn deficiency and a reduction in the innate immune response, which can ultimately make patients with COVID-19 more vulnerable to viral infection. As such, adequate intake of Vitamin C and Zn, as an adjunctive therapeutic approach with any necessary pharmacological treatment(s), may be necessary to mitigate the adverse physiological effects of COVID-19. To truly clarify the role of Vitamin C and Zn supplementation in the management of COVID-19, we must wait for the results of ongoing randomized controlled trials. The toxicity of Vitamin C and Zn should also be considered to prevent over-supplementation. Over-supplementation of Vitamin C can lead to oxalate toxicity, while increased Zn intake can reduce immune system function. In summary, Vitamin C and Zn supplementation may be useful in mitigating COVID-19 symptomology.

Four-week omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids supplementation for liver left lateral section volume reduction in individuals with morbid obesity undergoing bariatric surgery: A double blind, multicenter, randomized placebo-controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Liver steatosis in morbidly obese individuals undergoing bariatric surgery increases liver volume and may complicate the surgical procedure. This study aimed to assess whether a 4-week supplementation with omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) is effective in reducing liver left lateral section (LLLS) volume. PATIENTS AND METHODS: This randomized controlled trial included morbidly obese individuals with metabolic syndrome undergoing bariatric surgery at 3 French bariatric centers between 2017 and 2020. The experimental group had a 4-week preoperative supplementation with omega-3 PUFA, whereas the control group had only placebo. The primary outcome was the reduction of the LLLS volume measured with Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI). RESULTS: 42 patients were randomized and 37 completed the study (19 in the experimental group and 18 in the placebo group). The mean LLLS volume decreased of 3.3% (±9.6) in the experimental group vs 1.0% (±18.3) in the placebo group, indicating that omega-3 PUFA were not effective in reducing the LLLS volume compared to the placebo (p = 0.3741). Omega-3 PUFA supplementation was not effective in reducing total liver volume, liver steatosis, rate of liver injuries during surgery and operative time. CONCLUSION: A 4-week preoperative supplementation with omega-3 PUFA was not effective in reducing LLLS volume in morbidly obese individuals undergoing bariatric surgery.

Soluble Epoxide Hydrolase as a Therapeutic Target for Neuropsychiatric Disorders

It has been found that soluble epoxide hydrolase (sEH;encoded by the EPHX2 gene) in the metabolism of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) plays a key role in inflammation, which, in turn, plays a part in the pathogenesis of neuropsychiatric disorders. Meanwhile, epoxy fatty acids such as epoxyeicosatrienoic acids (EETs), epoxyeicosatetraenoic acids (EEQs), and epoxyeicosapentaenoic acids (EDPs) have been found to exert neuroprotective effects in animal models of neuropsychiatric disorders through potent anti-inflammatory actions. Soluble expoxide hydrolase, an enzyme present in all living organisms, metabolizes epoxy fatty acids into the corresponding dihydroxy fatty acids, which are less active than the precursors. In this regard, preclinical findings using sEH inhibitors or Ephx2 knock-out (KO) mice have indicated that the inhibition or deficiency of sEH can have beneficial effects in several models of neuropsychiatric disorders. Thus, this review discusses the current findings of the role of sEH in neuropsychiatric disorders, including depression, autism spectrum disorder (ASD), schizophrenia, Parkinson’s disease (PD), and stroke, as well as the potential mechanisms underlying the therapeutic effects of sEH inhibitors.

Boosting the immune system with functional compounds during the COVID-19 pandemic: a review

Background: More than 1 year has passed since the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic. Nutrition and its role in boosting the immune system have been a hot topic during the previous year in the light of the COVID-19 pandemic. An effective medicine for COVID-19 has not been introduced and public vaccination has not gained an acceptable speed in the world;therefore, preventive measures, protocols adherence, and a robust immune system are crucial. The aim of this study was to evaluate the role of food in boosting the immune system during the Covid-19 pandemic.

An insight to the therapeutic potential of algae-derived sulfated polysaccharides and polyunsaturated fatty acids: Focusing on the COVID-19.

Covid-19 pandemic severely affected human health worldwide. The rapidly increasing COVID-19 cases and successive mutations of the virus have made it a major challenge for scientists to find the best and efficient drug/vaccine/strategy to counteract the virus pathogenesis. As a result of research in scientific databases, regulating the immune system and its responses with nutrients and nutritional interventions is the most critical solution to prevent and combat this infection. Also, modulating other organs such as the intestine with these compounds can lead to the vaccines' effectiveness. Marine resources, mainly algae, are rich sources of nutrients and bioactive compounds with known immunomodulatory properties and the gut microbiome regulations. According to the purpose of the review, algae-derived bioactive compounds with immunomodulatory activities, sulfated polysaccharides, and polyunsaturated fatty acids have a good effect on the immune system. In addition, they have probiotic/prebiotic properties in the intestine and modulate the gut microbiomes; therefore, they can increase the effectiveness of vaccines produced. Thus, they with respectable safety, immune regulation, and modulation of microbiota have potential therapeutic against infections, especially COVID-19. They can also be employed as promising candidates for the prevention and treatment of viral infections, such as COVID-19.

In Situ Transesterification of Microbial Biomass for Biolubricant Production Catalyzed by Heteropolyacid Supported on Niobium

Lubricants are substances of the foremost importance in the modern world, as they are essential to the proper functioning of various mechanisms. Most lubricants, however, are still made from petroleum fractions. I light of this, and due to various environmental problems, the search for feasible biolubricants has become essential. This study obtained biolubricants through the in situ transesterification of microbial biomass, containing at least 20 wt% of lipids. The following two distinct biomasses were evaluated: the marine microalgae, Dunaliella salina, and the consortium of microalgae-fungi, Scenedesmus obliquus and Mucor circinelloides. Microbial oil from both biomasses presented a fatty acid profile with high amounts of oleic acid. The oil of D. salina had a lower content of polyunsaturated fatty acids relative to the microbial consortium profile, which indicates that this is a good configuration for increasing biolubricant oxidation resistance. The catalyst used was a Keggin-structure heteropolyacid supported on niobium, H3PMo12O40/Nb2O5, activated at 150 °C, which had high transesterification yields, notwithstanding the feedstocks, which were rich in free fatty acids. The performed transesterification reactions resulted in excellent yields, up to 97.58% and 96.80%, for marine microalgae and the consortium, respectively, after 6 h at 250 °C, with 10 wt% of catalyst (related to the lipid amount). As such, the (H3PMo12O40/Nb2O5) catalyst could become an attractive option for producing biolubricants from microbial biomass.

E-series resolvin metabolome, biosynthesis and critical role of stereochemistry of specialized pro-resolving mediators (SPMs) in inflammation-resolution: Preparing SPMs for long COVID-19, human clinical trials, and targeted precision nutrition.

The COVID-19 pandemic has raised international awareness of the importance of rigorous scientific evidence and the havoc caused by uncontrolled excessive inflammation. Here we consider the evidence on whether the specialized pro-resolving mediators (SPMs) are ready to meet this challenge as well as targeted metabololipidomics of the resolution-inflammation metabolomes. Specific stereochemical mechanisms in the biosynthesis of SPMs from omega-3 essential fatty acids give rise to unique local-acting lipid mediators. SPMs possess stereochemically defined potent bioactive structures that are high-affinity ligands for cognate G protein-coupled surface receptors that evoke the cellular responses required for efficient resolution of acute inflammation. The SPMs biosynthesized from the major omega-3 fatty acids eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) are coined Resolvins (resolution phase interaction products; E series and D-series), Protectins and Maresins (macrophage mediators in resolving inflammation). Their biosynthesis and stereochemical assignments are established and confirmed (>1,441 resolvin publications in PubMed.gov) as well as their functional roles on innate immune cells and adaptive immune cells (both lymphocyte T-cell subsets and B-cells). The resolution of a protective acute inflammatory response is governed mainly by phagocytes that actively clear apoptotic cells, debris, blood clots and pathogens. These resolution phase functions of the acute inflammatory response are enhanced by SPMs, which together prepare the inflammatory loci for homeostasis and stimulate tissue regeneration via activating stem cells and the biosynthesis of novel cys-SPMs (e.g. MCTRs, PCTRs and RCTRs). These cys-SPMs also activate regeneration, are organ protective and stimulate resolution of local inflammation. Herein, we review the biosynthesis and functions of the E-series resolvins, namely resolvin E1 (the first n-3 resolvin identified), resolvin E2, resolvin E3 and resolvin E4 biosynthesized from their precursor eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), and the critical role of total organic synthesis in confirming SPM complete stereochemistry, establishing their potent functions in resolution of inflammation, and novel structures. The physical properties of each biologically derived SPM, i.e., ultra-violet (UV) absorbance, chromatographic behavior, and tandem mass spectrometry (MS2) fragmentation, were matched to SPMs biosynthesized and prepared by stereospecific total organic synthesis. We briefly review this approach, also used with the endogenous D-series resolvins, protectins and maresins confirming their potent functions in resolution of inflammation, that paves the way for their rigorous evaluation in human tissues and clinical trials. The assignment of complete stereochemistry for each of the E and D series Resolvins, Protectins and Maresins was a critical and required step that enabled human clinical studies as in SPM profiling in COVID-19 infections and experimental animal disease models that also opened the promise of resolution physiology, resolution pharmacology and targeted precision nutrition as new areas for monitoring health and disease mechanisms.

Vaccine equity . . . and other stories

Using data on the daily number of motor vehicle collisions resulting in death or injury and adjusting for seasonality, a complicated analysis shows a small decrease when compared with England and Wales, where there is no minimum price for alcohol. Omega 3 fatty acids for depression in adults Although omega 3 polyunsaturated fatty acids are no longer thought to have any protective influence on cardiovascular disease, there have been suggestions that they might reduce the occurrence and severity of depressive disorders. Any beneficial effect of omega 3 polyunsaturated fatty acids is probably too small to be useful (Cochrane Database Syst Rev doi:10.1002/14651858.CD004692.pub5).

Editorial: Fish Nutrition, Metabolism and Physiology

Editorial on the Research Topic Fish Nutrition, Metabolism and Physiology Aquatic foods from marine and freshwater play a significant role in nutrition of billions of people globally, particularly during the COVID-19 pandemic which has jeopardized the global food security (Tigchelaar et al., 2021). [...]aquatic foods are considered as unique and rich sources of n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFA) such as EPA and DHA with beneficial impacts in a range of human pathologies particularly cardiovascular diseases (Golden et al., 2021). [...]promoting intestinal health of fish fed high soybean meal diets through supplementation of bioactive compounds has also drawn increasing attention. [...]the inclusion of higher plant are often associated with research challenges for fish health and welfare. [...]identifying LC-PUFA biosynthesis in fish fed plant oils has pivotal implication for aquafeeds formulation.

The role of inositol, folic acid and polyunsaturated fatty acids in pregnancy and fetal development

Historical reasons have led to knowledge that would not have been possible to obtain through research without gross violations of ethical norms. Quantification of macro- and micro-nutrient intake is hampered by a number of barriers. It has been observed that changes in fetal nutrition and its endocrine status can result in developmental adjustments that permanently alter the structure, physiology, and metabolism of children, thus exposing individuals to the risk of metabolic, endocrine, and cardiovascular diseases in adulthood. In research on the process better known as "fetal programming", the influence of the in utero environment on the epigenetic mechanisms of the fetus has been observed. Decreased or increased amounts of food intake may interfere with placental function and interfere with fetal growth. Altered placental function can lead to endothelial dysfunction, leading to changes in fetal growth and development. More recently, there has been increasing research on the impact of dietary supplementation on pregnant women and perinatal outcome. Among the more frequently examined variables are micronutrients such as folic acid, antioxidants, iron, magnesium and zinc, but also polyunsaturated fatty acids. The Covid-19 pandemic further highlighted the need to create disease registries and systematically monitor data, especially given the differences in health care availability on one hand and the incredible global differences in nutrient availability on the other.

Essential Fatty Acids and Their Metabolites in the Pathobiology of Inflammation and Its Resolution.

Arachidonic acid (AA) metabolism is critical in the initiation and resolution of inflammation. Prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) and leukotriene B4/D4/E4 (LTB4/LD4/LTE4), derived from AA, are involved in the initiation of inflammation and regulation of immune response, hematopoiesis, and M1 (pro-inflammatory) macrophage facilitation. Paradoxically, PGE2 suppresses interleukin-6 (IL-6) and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) production and triggers the production of lipoxin A4 (LXA4) from AA to initiate inflammation resolution process and augment regeneration of tissues. LXA4 suppresses PGE2 and LTs' synthesis and action and facilitates M2 macrophage generation to resolve inflammation. AA inactivates enveloped viruses including SARS-CoV-2. Macrophages, NK cells, T cells, and other immunocytes release AA and other bioactive lipids to produce their anti-microbial actions. AA, PGE2, and LXA4 have cytoprotective actions, regulate nitric oxide generation, and are critical to maintain cell shape and control cell motility and phagocytosis, and inflammation, immunity, and anti-microbial actions. Hence, it is proposed that AA plays a crucial role in the pathobiology of ischemia/reperfusion injury, sepsis, COVID-19, and other critical illnesses, implying that its (AA) administration may be of significant benefit in the prevention and amelioration of these diseases.

In the Age of Viral Pandemic, Can Ingredients Inspired by Human Milk and Infant Nutrition Be Repurposed to Support the Immune System?

In 2020, with the advent of a pandemic touching all aspects of global life, there is a renewed interest in nutrition solutions to support the immune system. Infants are vulnerable to infection and breastfeeding has been demonstrated to provide protection. As such, human milk is a great model for sources of functional nutrition ingredients, which may play direct roles in protection against viral diseases. This review aims to summarize the literature around human milk (lactoferrin, milk fat globule membrane, osteopontin, glycerol monolaurate and human milk oligosaccharides) and infant nutrition (polyunsaturated fatty acids, probiotics and postbiotics) inspired ingredients for support against viral infections and the immune system more broadly. We believe that the application of these ingredients can span across all life stages and thus apply to both pediatric and adult nutrition. We highlight the opportunities for further research in this field to help provide tangible nutrition solutions to support one's immune system and fight against infections.